Iwc Article Viii
Iwc Article Viii
Whaling in Japan
History
See also: History of whaling
Archaeological evidence in the form of whale is discovered in burial mounds shows that the whales have been consumed in Japan since Jmon Period. Without the opportunity to actively participate in whaling, consumption was mainly due to stranded cetaceans. Surviving Ainu folklore reveals a long history of whaling and a spiritual association with whales. The earliest records of hand-thrown harpoons only date back to the 12th century.
Inshore Whaling in Taiji, Japan
Organized whaling
Organized open boat shore whaling began in the 1570s and continued into the early 20th century. Techniques were developed dramatically in the 17th century in Taiji, Wakayama. Wada Chubei Yorimoto created a fishery by organizing group hunting system in 1606. Whalers would see whales from stations along the beach and launch boats to catch them with harpoons and spears. His granddaughter, Wada Kakuemon Yoriharu, later known as Taiji Kakuemon Yoriharu, invented whaling net known technique Amitori-Shiki ().
Instead of trying to harpoon whales in open water, now twenty or more boats would surround a whale and make a racket, run it against shallow in networks, swung to a second group of six boats. The harpoons would approach both in four of their own. The nets made escape more dificult and in his struggle to escape, the whale tired before.
Right whales were humpback whales, fin, minke and gray whales primarily hunted. Blue whales, SEI, Bryde's and sperm whales were also taken when possible.
When the country was the whale quickly flensed and split into its different parts for different stocks and further processing. Even the primary use of whales became flesh, the whole whale utilized in a variety of products, including lamp oil, soap, fertilizer, folding fans (bard), and more. This method of whaling required a significant financial investment from wealthy individuals to offset the substantial workforce. But whaling remained intertwined with ritual and Unlike their European counterparts early modern Japanese coastal whalers whales considered a valuable resource and not over-exploit local populations.
Modernisation
Norwegian-style modern whaling, based on the use of motorized vessels, guns and exploding harpoons, was introduced in the Meiji era, to a large extent through the efforts juros Oka is now regarded as the father of modern Japanese whaling. Oka traveled the world collecting information about whaling practices, including Norway the harpoons, guns and expertise. He also established the first modern whaling company in Japan in 1899, Nihon Enyo Gyogyo KK, which took its first whale, 4 February 1900 with a Norwegian Gunner, Morten Pedersen.
In the early 20th century, dominated juros Oka whale meat market in Japan with support and instruction from Norwegian whalers and their rented or purchased ships. Another strength was supplied by the capture of a Russian whaling fleet and its subsequent transfer to Toyo GyoGyo Co. Ltd. As Japan's whaling industry expanded into new areas, including Korean waters, the ship production and oil processing, Oka company (renamed Toyo Hogei KK) returned significant profits to its investors, led to increased Japanese competition. Oka became the first president of Japan's whaling and Fishing Association, established in 1908.
I am firmly convinced that we must become one of the major whaling nations in the world. The whaling grounds round of Korea and Japan have unlimited options, and stocks of whales, in contrast to expectations, not in these areas we have Sea of Okhotsk and the Berring Sea to the north, and we realize the great treasure houses on the south. The day will come when we hear one morning that the whales have been trapped in the Arctic and in the evening that whales are hunted in the Antarctic.
Oka juros – The father of modern Japanese whaling, 1910
But at the beginning of the 20th century local traditions conflict with modern whaling practices. In 1911 the conflict turned violent in the same Village, Aomori Prefecture. Ocean pollution from whaling stations, including quantities of oil and blood runoff, anger local fishermen and threatened their own fishing grounds. In protest fishermen burned a Toyo Hogei facility down. The people of the same region nor consume whales and considered it sacred.
The League of Nations expressed concern about the overexploitation of whale stocks (perhaps because of the falling price of whale oil) and called for conservation measures in 1925. That led to the Geneva Convention on the regulation of whaling, which was presented in 1931 but did not enter in force until 1934 and was completely ignored by Japan and Germany.
Antarctica
Factory ships were used by Japan until 1930. As the whale catch decreases in the coastal waters to Japan to Antarctica. Toyo Hogei KK bought the Norwegian factory ship, Antarctica, rename it Tonan Maru in 1934. Refrigerator ships were forwarded to freeze and transport the meat back to Japan. By using both the meat and oil from whales Japanese industry continued to outperform other whaling nations. Improvements in technology such as the world's first diesel-powered catch the boat, Seki Maru, also increased the ability to take whales. In the years built up to the Second World War, Germans bought Tran from Japan and both nations used it as preparation for war.
In London in 1937, led the international conference on whaling which Japan did not participate, further limits pelagic whaling in order to prevent excessive use (and in particular the eradication of the Blue whale) establishment of the International Agreement on the Regulation of Whaling. Voluntary acceptance of limitations:
This is more important that Japan, which have not yet acceded to the Convention from 1931 is largely increasing her whaling fleet in Antarctica …
Notwithstanding the efforts to establish levels were partly due to Japan ignore a 89 days season and continues for 125 days, a record 45,010 whales caught in a single season. Minutes to the international agreement on the Regulation of Whaling, signed in 1938, created additional restrictions on whaling. Despite the presence of Japanese representatives, Japan has not signed the agreement and violated it by taking the hunchback and undersized whales beginning five weeks before the scheduled start of the season. In 1939 Germany and Japan accounted for 30% of the world's whale take.
World War II
The Tonan Maru No 2 whaling factory ship, drawn up in military use, damaged by a Dutch submarine while taking part in the landing at Kuching, Borneo.
During the Second World War, Japan's whaling was significantly reduced to more familiar hunting grounds, such as Bonin islands to provide meat and oil for domestic and military use. Whaling was arrested in March 1945, when the islands were taken by U.S. forces. But in November 1945 whaling stations been allowed to reopen. Most whaling ships were seized by the Japanese fleet and by the end of the war factory ships and most of the catch boats had been lowered.
General Douglas MacArthur called Japan surrendered to continue whaling in order to provide a cheap source of meat for starving people (And millions of dollars in oil for the USA and Europe). The Japanese whaling industry quickly recovered as MacArthur approved two tankers, converted to factory ships (and Nisshin Maru Hashidate Maru) and catcher both to re-take the blue whales, fin, humpback whales and sperm whales in Antarctica and elsewhere.
The first post-war expedition was monitored of an American Navy officer, Lieutenant David McCracken, and led by Australian Kenneth Coonan. Coonan expressed disapproval of McCracken in his reports violated regulations and waste dumped over the side when the fleet began to kill whales faster than they could be treated. McCracken even briefly joined in whaling with the Japanese crew of a fishing boat and detailed tour of his 1948 book, four months on a Jap Whaler.
The postwar boom created whale meat as a nationwide food source For the first time. In 1947, whale meat made up over 50 percent of the meat consumed in Japan. The market grew significantly through commercial sales and public distribution. In 1954 also School Lunch Act included whale meat in compulsory education (elementary and middle school) to improve the nutrition of Japanese children. But as economic growth and the average income improved, demand for whale fell. Other meat became more popular in the 1970s and whale meat was removed from school menus.
ICRW and IWC
Signing the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling, Washington, DC December 2, 1946
The International Convention for the Regulation of whaling was established in 1946 in Washington to "ensure appropriate conservation of whale stocks and thus allow the orderly development of whaling industry ". Based on the previous 1937 international convention and subsequent protocols to this agreement in 1938 and 1945, the ICRW led to the 1949 establishment of the International Whaling Commission and consists of guidelines for the international regulation of coastal and pelagic whaling. Japan joined the IWC in 1951. (Critics charge that the IWC and ICRW largely failed because of a lack of binding regulations and regulatory loopholes)
Japan would later make heavy use of a particular article of ICRW despite condemnation of environmental organizations and anti-whaling nations.
Article VIII
1st Notwithstanding the provisions of this Convention any Contracting Government may grant to any of their nationals a special permit authorizing that national to kill, take and treat whales for scientific Research has been subject to such restrictions in number and subject to such other conditions as the Contracting Government thinks fit, and killing, taking, and treating of whales in accordance with the provisions of this Article shall be exempt from the application of this Convention. Each State Party shall report immediately to the Commission all such authorizations which it has granted. Each Contracting State may at any time revoke such special permit, it has provided.
2nd Any whales taken under these special permits As far as possible be treated and the proceeds are treated in accordance with the guidelines issued by the government, which permission was granted.
Whaling Commission Pirate
Because the IWC adopted regulation on whaling several unregulated operations acting outside the laws of the member countries were notorious in the mid-late 20th century. For example, a large private whaling fleet is owned (through a variety of companies and FOC) by shipping magnate Aristotle Onassis and gained notoriety for ignoring all limits on the size and nature. Once the Peruvian Navy finally stopped and grabbed Onassis fleet, and sanctions should be applied throughout the fleet was sold to Japan for 8.5 million dollars. Onassis' factory ship, the Olympic Challenger was renamed Kyokuyo Maru II.
The Japanese trawler Shunyo Maru, was later combined catcher / Factory whaling ship, MV Tonna, and was owned by Andrew M. Behr, who also owned the notorious pirate whaling ship Sierra. The Tonna is famous for his death. In 1978, with full with Tonna landed another 50 tons Fin whale. When the whale was Wince aboard the ship to address listed above, took water and sank rapidly. Behr and Sierra was also associated with Japan's Taiyo Fishing Co. through a Canadian subsidiary (Taiyo Canada Ltd.) and whale products to Japan. Sierra was severely damaged after being rammed by activist Paul Watson on his ship, Sea Shepherd. Sierra was later sunk in port by unknown saboteurs with burdock mines. Watson Paul continues to be a controversial figure in contradiction with whaling and especially Japan. Taiyo and other Japanese fishing has also been associated with pirate whaling through subsidiaries in Taiwan, Philippines, Spain, South Korea, Chile and Peru.
Consolidation
As quotas and resources were reduced and restrictions increase the commercial viability of large competing whaling fleets were also reduced. To preserve the industry, six Japanese whaling companies negotiated an agreement through the Japan Fisheries Agency and conversations in July 1975. The six companies (Nihon Suisan, Taiyo Gyogyo, Kyokuyo, Nitto Hogei, Nihon Hogei and Hokuyo Hogei) merged to create a new company, Nihon Kyodo Hogei Co., Ltd. 15 February 1976. Former President of Japan Fisheries Association and previously General of Japan Fisheries Agency, Iwao Fujita, was the first CEO to be agreed.
In April, 1976, Shintaro Abe, Minister of Agriculture, forestry and fisheries, said government support for the new company.
We pray that the flame in the whaling industry would not be put out and that you do your best to ensure Japan's food supply. The government will do everything it can to actively support your efforts.
Minister Shintaro Abe, 1976
Nihon Kyodo Hogei Co. Ltd was later renamed Kyodo Senpaku Co Ltd and merged with the Japan Whaling Association and the Institute of Cetacean Research to create the modern Institute of Cetacean Research during 1987.
Moratorium
In 1972, drew up the UN Environment Programme conference a 52-0 vote by a 10-year global moratorium on commercial whaling. However, the UN resolution was not adopted by the IWC by a vote of 6-no, four yes-and four-abstain. Japan, Russia, Iceland, Norway, South Africa and Panama voted no.
In 1973, a moratorium again proposed and voted down the IWC lacks the necessary three quarters majority. (8 yes, 5 no, 1 abstain). Japan, Russia, Iceland, Norway and South Africa voting No.
Between 1973 and 1982 the IWC would see its membership increase from 14 members to 37 perhaps stacking the vote in favor of anti-whaling nations.
In 1980 and in 1981 two more votes failed to establish a moratorium with a three quarters majority. (13-9-2 and 16-8-3)
In 1982, the International Whaling Commission (IWC) has finally voted for a moratorium on commercial whaling to take effect in 1986 (25-7-5). Japan objected to the moratorium and continued whaling (Under the ICRW an object nation is exempt from the disputed regulations. Japan also continued to hunt sperm whales, despite the 1981 IWC zero catch quota.). U.S. would play a significant role in Japan's agreement for a global moratorium on commercial whaling because of its national law. Especially the 1971 Pelly Amendment to the U.S. Fishermen's Protection Act gives the U.S. president legal authority to ban imports of fishery products from any nation that is falling efficiency fisheries conservation programs. This was later reinforced in the 1979 Packwood-Magnuson Amendment of Fishing Conservation and Management Act provides the same penalties power with respect to ICRW.
Potential U.S. sanctions endangered Japanese access to fishing for Alaskan waters and a one million tonnes of fish (est. $ 425,000,000 annually). A negotiated settlement was reached with Japan to continue commercial whaling without the threat of U.S. sanctions until 1988 with an agreement to release Japan objected to the moratorium in 1985. But conservation groups sued the U.S. Secretary of Commerce argues that the law did not allow any deals only be finally defeated by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1986. As agreed Japan withdrew its objection to the moratorium and stopped commercial whaling in 1988. (Japan access to Alaska waters was then gradually in all cases, partly because of pressure from U.S. fishermen and environmentalists)
Research Whaling Commission
In 1976, ratio of southern hemisphere Bryde's whales was set to zero at the IWC. But Japan continued to take 225 of them during the 76-77 season by issuing itself a permit to take whales for scientific research pursuant to Article VIII of the ICRW. After this event, IWC recommended all future uses of Article VIII examined by the IWC scientific committee.
In 1986, Japan introduced a similar proposal and then issued himself a scientific permit to take 825 minke whales and 50 sperm whales each year for ten years. Despite the fact to the IWC scientific committee rejected his proposal for research Japan continued whaling.
IWC adopted a resolution in 1987 recommending that Japan does not start before dispute his research proposal was resolved. Another resolution was also adopted 14 February 1988 to recommend Japan not continue. On February 9, 1988 Japanese whalers killed the first minke whales in Antarctic waters under the new self-issued research whaling permit. U.S. President Ronald Reagan responded by cutting off Japanese fishing privileges in American waters on 6 April 1988 under the Packwood-Magnuson Amendment.
Given the lack of evidence that Japan is to bring its whaling activities in accordance with the recommendations of the IWC, I'm looking Secretary of State under the Packwood-Magnuson Amendment to withhold 100 percent of the fishing opportunities privileges that would otherwise be available to Japan in the U.S. exclusive economic zone. Japan requested that the fish to 3,000 tonnes gastropod and 5,000 tonnes of Pacific whiting. These requests will be rejected. Furthermore, Japan will be excluded from any future allocation of fishing possibilities privileges for all other species including Pacific cod, until the Secretary of Commerce provides that situation has been corrected.
U.S. President Ronald Reagan, 1988
Japan has since conducted research whaling programs in the North Pacific (JARPN 1994-1999 JARPN II 2000resent) and in Antarctica (JARPA 1988-2005, JARPA II 2005resent). Each program has met great controversy in the IWC, which adopted several resolutions urges Japan not to continue. Both the value of research were questioned and the need for lethal methods.
After over 50 years of control, Japan's center-right Conservative Party, Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) lost the 2009 election to the opposing left Democratic Party of Japan (DPJ). Environmental groups had hoped the change the government would put an end to Japanese whaling. But in 2009 Foreign Minister of Japan, Katsuya Okada, explained that whaling would continue to receive support as an issue about politics.
International Maritime Organization (IMO) regulations may affect Japan's whaling programs in the future. In Antarctica, the use of heavy fuel oil will be prohibited, new ice-resistant standards for hull design will be imposed, and the dumping of whaling in the waste may be banned.
Production
Japan whaling takes place in both Pelagic (open sea) areas in the North Pacific and the Southern Ocean close to the Antarctic. Coastal waters are also used for small-type coastal whaling of dolphins and other small cetaceans. Big and small whales are sometimes taken as bycatch in gillnets of Japanese fishing vessels as well.
Pelagic Whaling Commission
Japanese pelagic whaling fleets, which annually hunt large whales in the Southern Ocean, consists of a series of ships for hunting and processing whales catch and secure the hunt against protests. During the 2009-10 season, the Japanese fleet included a factory ship, four harpoon ships and two security patrol vessels. The Japanese contingent includes 935 minke whales, 50 fin whales and 50 humpback whales per season.
When whales are spotted the harpoon ships will participate in the hunt. A harpoon gun with a grenade tipped harpoon is fired at the target whale. A rope is towed from the harpoon to prevent whales from being lost. If the whale is hit and not killed instantly by an explosive tipped harpoon, a second harpoon can be used or whale can be shot with a rifle until death. A previous method of using a second harpoon to the electric whales are now banned by the IWC. Environmental groups have reported whales become withdrawn and drowned.
Each trapped whale is secured to the side of a harpoon ship with ropes. Lines are then used to transfer the whales from the harpoon ship to the factory ship. Whales are next Wince at the factory ship through a pipeline at the aft of the vessel. At flensing covered more workers use specialized tools to butcher the whale. Useful product is delivered to the lower deck of the ship for further processing and refrigerated storage. Excess product or material is dumped back into the sea.
The Sea Shepherd Conservation Society, a direct action group against this whaling, attempt to disrupt the annual Japanese whaling operations in order to prevent as many whales as possible from being killed.
New rules from the UN International Maritime Organisation come into force in July 2011 would make it illegal for Nisshin Maru to operate below 60 degrees south, but all the Japanese pelagic whaling happens inside the area. The new rules prohibit ships using heavy oil in the Antarctic Treaty System area because of the damage a leak would result. Moreover, the IMO Guidelines for ships in the icy waters with requirements for safety and hull strength as Nisshin Maru does not comply.
Small Type Coastal Whaling Commission
See also: Dolphin drive hunting
Coastal fishing fleets hunting dolphins use many small boats in a coordinated effort. Fishermen bang metal poles in the water to scare and therefore guide noise sensitive dolphins from shore. Several tools are then used to corral the dolphins in. Divers and fishers in the boats next lance, or cut the throats of the dolphins and pull them off to a nearby rural station for processing. A pair of dolphins have been selected for sale to aquariums and saved for the marine park entertainment industry.
The practice of dolphin hunt in Taiji, Japan recently became the subject of a documentary called The Cove.
Japanese whalers have hunted Baird's beaked whales on the Boso Peninsula, Wada, since the 1600s. Once landed just off the coast of Japan, beaked whales pulled at a landing station with rope and then slaughtered for sale. The meat is sold as food and rest is used for fertilizer.
In May 2007 the IWC rejected proposals to expand coastal catches. The quota was limited to a total of 66 whales of four whaling towns. The whalers of Wada encourage local children to participate in the first culls of each season, followed by an event, where whale meat is served.
According to the Japan Fisheries Agency up to 20,000 dolphins of various species will be taken, many sites along coast of Japan, during a six-month season.
Catch
In 2009, DNA published analysis of whale meat from Japanese markets proposed as many as 150 large whales from vulnerable coastal stocks were taken annually as bycatch. Japan may lawfully the commercial sale of captured whales, moreover, entangled in fishing nets designed to catch inshore fish. Market research also found migratory cetaceans such as humpback whales, fin whales, breach whales and gray whales some of which are endangered species.
The effect on J-stock whales, which have protected status under the IWC appears to have increased with changes in Japanese regulations, legalized the sale of the catch in 2001. Between 1997 and 2000 only 19 to 29 whales per year were reported caught as bycatch. The number rose to 89 to 137 per year between 2001 and 2004. The study shows, however, concluded from genetic data, the actual amount of catch was as high prior to the 2001 regulations, but were under-reported. Up to 46% of the examined samples were found to be J-stock.
Prior to the 2001 amendment to the rules, fishermen could not legally sell Minke whales for commercial businesses and had to sell them locally or destroy them and report the incident. The high percentage of J-stock catches represent a significant threat including the possibility of extinction within a few decades after the IWC population estimates.
Imports
In 2009, Japan accepted the import of whale meat from Norway and Iceland for the first time in over a decade. The Norwegian shipping arrived in mid-2008 but was held by Japanese customs until January 2009 when Japan Fisheries Agency finally approved imports.
International trade in whale meat is banned by CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora). But Japan, Norway and Iceland registered reservations about the Treaty in order to remain exempt. The Norwegian company, Myklebust Trading, exportation common minke whales and Iceland Hvalur hf export Fin whale has a threatened species. Environmental Organizations criticized trade and expressed doubt that the Japanese market could absorb the increase in supply as thousands of tons of whale meat in cold storage remained in Japan.
Scientific Research
See also: Institute of Cetacean Research
After the halt its commercial whaling, Japan began scientific research hunts to provide a basis the resumption of sustainable whaling. According to environmental groups and the Australian Environment Minister, it seems research serves to conceal commercial whaling in circumvention of the IWC moratorium. IWC Scientific Committee collects up-to-date data on catch limits and catch since 1985. Figures have ranged from less than 200 in 1985 to nearly 1,000 in 2007th
Research done by the Institute of Cetacean Research (ICR), a privately owned, non-profit institution. The Institute receives its funding from government grants and Kyodo Senpaku, handling the processing and marketing of products such as whale meat. Japan carries out its whaling in two areas: the North-West Pacific (JARPN II) and the Antarctic Ocean (JARPA) southern hemisphere catch. The 2007/08 JARPA mission had a quota of 900 minke whales and 50 fin whales.
Catches
Japanese whale catches from 1985-2006
IWC – Japan catches under the Opposition (19851988)
Area
Sperm
Broken
Minke
Total
N Pacific
388
634
615
1637
S Hemisphere
0
0
3882
3882
IWC, – Japan special permit catch (19882009)
Area
Fin
Sperm
Sei
Broken
Minke
Total
N Pacific
0
47
592
446
1899
2984
S Hemisphere
14
0
0
0
9395
9409
JARPA
The research took place near Antarctica 1988-2005. Its stated objective was to determine mortality, whale stock numbers and structure, the role of whales in the Antarctic ecosystem and how environmental change affect whales. The whaling operations alternated between several predetermined areas, before taking 400 or more per season minke whales.
In 1997, the IWC Scientific Committee officially reviewed the JARPA program. The Committee is expected fair precision and usefulness of the data collected, but disagreed on whether lethal methods was necessary. It was also noted that the results could potentially allow an increase in the number of minke whales annually taken.
In the last 2007 Review Committee agreed with the initial 1997 assessment center. It acknowledged that there had been progress in identifying stock structure and at least two populations were found in research. Exact estimates of abundance could not be developed and preliminary estimates can only reflect significant changes in abundance over a long time line. Problems were identified with age and mortality data. Krill-related work was welcomed, but relatively little progress was made towards understanding the role of whales in the Antarctic ecosystem. Data on pollution was also welcomed, but controversy continued over an analysis of the results. Levels of toxic pollutants were lower than in the Antarctic whales sampled in the northern hemisphere.
Commission made note of the catches took place in the IWC established the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary and to improve management of whaling sanctuary is unnecessary. The 2007-1 decision JARPA is one of several call on Japan by majority decision to suspend its lethal research.
JARPA II
Like its predecessor, Considers research whaling program location near Antarctica. From 2005 and continuing for days, objectives include monitoring the Antarctic ecosystem modeling competition between whale species, recording changes in stock structure and improve the future management of Antarctic whales. The program calls for 850 or more Antarctic minke whales, fin whales 50 and 50 humpback whales per season. (A quota of humpback whales has not yet been implemented because of intense international opposition)
Disagreement about the value of research, continued use of lethal methods and sample sizes in both the Scientific Committee and Commission. In 2005 and 2007 the Commission passed resolutions with majority urges Japan to stop all lethal research in JARPA II.
JARPN
From 1994 to 1999 Japan conducted its research JARPN in the western North Pacific. Its stated goal was to improve knowledge of stock identity, improve implementation Simulation Studies in North Pacific Common Minke Whales and serve as an appraisal of a program for feeding ecology. The program called for 100 minke whales annually. The results were reviewed by the Committee in February 2000. The Committee agreed the information was useful for management, but no consensus was reached on lethal methods of research were necessary.
As with JARPA detached IWC resolutions Calls for Japan to stop issuing permits for taking of Minke Whales citing concern over the need for lethal methods such as 1999-3 Resolution on whaling under special permission.
JARPN II
JARPN II began with a feasibility study from 2000 to 2001 to continue with the whales in the western North Pacific in particular 100 common minke whales, 50 Bryde's whales and sperm whales 10. The objectives of the program included the study of feeding ecology (such as prey consumption), stock structure and the environmental impact of cetacean. In 2002, after completion of the initial investigation suggested Japan and began a long term program to study how the feeding ecology focuses on the sustainable exploitation in the Pacific and in Japan's exclusive economic zone. The 2008 application included a proposal for a yearly take of 340 minke whales, 50 Bryde's whales, 100 sei and 10 sperm whales.
Disagreement on target, method, effect on stocks and the overall success of the program continuing in the Scientific Committee examination of the feasibility study and full program. The full program introduced a change from previous use of ICRW Article VIII research provision by failing to specify an end date. Goals was deemed unnecessary for inventory management of some members and will not contribute significantly to the previously identified research needs. Sample size and proposed methods was unlikely to meet its objectives and ecosystem models were found to be poorly developed.
Some did the program has placed undue emphasis the presumed negative effects of whales predation on fish resources while failing to address the effects of fishing on cetaceans. But others said determining the effects of whales on fish stocks and more information on minke whale stock structure to be critically important. Some said feasibility study will provide valuable information about methodology and other aspects the program will be improved over time and contribute to fundamental questions. The Committee found that the pollution target did not contribute to the objectives of the IWC Pollution 2000 + project, but remained relevant to the IWC for long-term study.
Disagreement about the value of data obtained by lethal methods also continued. Some thought to a broad range of questions can be answered by non-lethal means such as "for pollutant monitoring (biopsy sampling of fatty acids and stable isotopes analysis) for stock structure (photo identification, biopsy sampling and fecal sampling), and the feeding ecology (faecal sampling). "Others argued that exchange data needed for modeling purposes that could not be acquired through non-lethal means. But feeding ecology was not necessarily relevant management of the stock, according to some who claimed biopsy sampling would allow a larger amount of statistical data.
Argument continued over the potential negative effects of catches by stock depletion of O and J stock Warehouse whales, when the only information about many of the people came from the selective extrapolations by JSV (survey) data. Proponents claim that JSV data was reliable and research area expanded from coastal areas to offshore areas and thus reduce the pressure on coastal populations.
In 2000, 2001 and 2003 several resolutions were adopted by the IWC urge Japan to stop issuing special permits for whaling and limit research of non-lethal methods. The latest scientific committee review was conducted in January 2009.
Publication
In 2008 a study based on data collected by Japanese lethal research was published in a peer-reviewed academic journal Western, Polar Biology, after being been rejected by numerous other publications. The study in which 6,779 whales were collected and more than 4,500 deaths, meant that the Antarctic Minke Whales lost 9% of their blubber over 18 years because of lack of ocean resources like krill. Lars Wallo, a Norwegian at the University of Oslo, assisted in analyzing data and claimed the investigation was first rejected for political reasons. Dr. Nick Gales of the Australian Antarctic Division, said the investigation failed to respond to criticism of his method when originally presented. The survey also contradicted earlier presented JARPA data used to indicate the Antarctic Minke whale stocks were healthy.
Opposition
See also: Whaling controversy
Anti-whaling governments and groups have strongly opposed Japan's whaling program. Greenpeace claims that whales are endangered and must be protected. The Japanese government strongly supports protection of endangered species but argues that the scientific whaling is important to collect information on the status of different population groups. It also argues that the scope of research is such that it does not affect the population of the species. In 1985 IWC estimates put the southern hemisphere Minke population of 761,000 (510,000 – 1,140,000 at 95% confidence estimate). One paper submitted to the IWC on estimates for the population in the Antarctic waters using of CNB provides a population of 665,074 based on the Southern Ocean Whale and Ecosystem Research Programme (sower) data. In recent years Japan has caught up to 1100 minke whales 0.2% of lower limit of 1985 95% estimate.
Research methodology has come under control as it has been argued that non-lethal methods of research available and that Japan's research whaling is commercial whaling in disguise. The Japanese argue that the accuracy of tissue and stool samples are insufficient and lethal sampling is necessary.
In 2002, the World Wildlife Fund, an open letter to the Japanese (both Japanese and English text) in New York Times signed by a group of international scientists, with their assertion that "Japan's whale 'research' program does not meet minimum standards on credible science. "They accused Japan of" using the notion of scientific research to avoid its obligations to the world community. " Signatories to the letter contained Sylvia Earle (former Chief Scientist of NOAA), Giuseppe Notarbartolo di Sciara (former President of the European Cetacean Society) and Roger Payne (founder of Ocean Alliance).
In Volume 53, No. 3 of the journal Bio Science, twenty members of the Scientific Committee of the International Whaling Commission confirmed "The signatories of the open letter correctly summarized the criticism from scientists very familiar with Japanese scientific whaling" and that "so little of any importance to the IWC management can only be obtained from whaling catches, that it is impossible to justify the killing of animals on this basis. "
A 2006 episode by Australian Broadcasting Corporation's popular science show Catalyst, which strongly argued against whaling, reported that the 18 years JARPA I program, which lethally samples collected from 6,800 whales, less than 55 peer-reviewed papers were produced, of which only 14 calling for the program to be relevant to the objectives of JARPA program and that only four would require lethal sampling. Some of the research includes a document named Fertilizability of sheep, cattle, and minke whales spermatazoa intracytoplasmically injected into bovine oocytes. Joji Morishita of JARPA has said that the number of samples was necessary in order to obtain statistically significant data. More detail list of scientific papers to the IWC until 2005.
Sea Shepherd has denied that Japan, Iceland and Norway are in violation of the IWC moratorium on all commercial whaling.
Anti-whaling protesters claim that the Japanese population do not support the government for its whaling policy. However, all the major political parties from the right wing of the LDP to the Japanese Communist Party supports whaling. The meat ends up in Tokyo's famous Tsukiji fish market and other high-end restaurants.
Japanese fishing companies has expanded abroad and endured pressure from partners and environmental groups. Five major fishing companies moved their whaling fleet shares for public interest companies in 2006. In 2007 decided Kyokuyo and Maruha, two of Japan's four largest fishing companies to stop their sale of whale meat because of pressure from partners and environmental groups in the U.S..
Cultural issues
Proponents of Japanese whaling (including the Government of Japan) often claim that it is a cultural practice that foreigners should not oppose on the basis of cultural differences. Joji Morishita the Japanese Fisheries Agency in 2001 noted that the Japanese people also believe that anti-whaling groups are hidden racist. In Norway and Iceland hunt whales on a commercial basis, according to Morishita, "Singling out [Japan] whaling is cultural imperialism – some would say it is racism. Norway and Iceland are also whalers, but the criticism of Japan is stronger. "
However, critics have forced the attack "cultural" defense, for instance, with Sea Shepherd Conservation Society representatives compare it to forced female circumcision in Sudan, another practice that may have cultural roots, but must still be accepted.
Debate at IWC
For more details about the debate, see International Whaling Commission Policy #.
The most vocal opponents of the Japanese press for a resumption of commercial whaling is Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom. The Australian Government's stated aim to oppose whaling, the need for conservation of endangered species. The New Zealand Government is opposed to hunting whales for food and research and the British government believes that "to whaling serve no real need and involves unacceptable cruelty. "
In July 2004 reported that a working group under Japan's ruling Liberal Democratic had drawn up plans to leave the IWC to join a new pro-whaling organization NAMMCO, because of the IWC's refusal to back the principle of sustainable commercial whaling. Japan is particularly opposed to the IWC Conservation Committee was established in 2003, and it says exists solely to prevent any whaling. Any directives from the IWC implemented on a purely voluntary basis as state sovereignty means that there are few roads that international law be enforced.
At an IWC meeting In 2006, a resolution calling for the eventual return of commercial whaling was adopted by a majority of only one vote. There has been a failure to lift the ban to commercial whaling and Japan have since threatened to pull out of the International Whaling Commission (IWC).
In 2007 the IWC adopted a resolution asking Japan to refrain from issuing a permit for lethal research in the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary – the main Japanese whaling area.
After a visit in Tokyo, as Chairman of the IWC, asking the Japanese for their cooperation in sorting of the differences between pro-and anti-whaling nations of the Commission, the Japanese whaling fleet agreed that no humpback whales would be caught in the two years it would take for the IWC to reach a formal agreement.
Australian opposition
Because the short distance to Australia Australia's government has been particularly vocal in its opposition to Japanese whaling activity in the South Pacific. In 1994, Australia claimed a 200-nautical-mile (370 km) exclusive economic zone (EEZ) around the Australian Antarctic, which includes a southern part of the IWC Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary. In December 2007, the Rudd Government plans to monitor Japanese whalers about to enter Australian waters to gather evidence for a possible international legal challenge, and the eighth January 2008 Australian government sent the Australian Customs vessel Oceanic Viking to track and monitor fleet. Although this vessel was later reassigned to duties related business to waters north of Australia, in January 2010, it is not in pursuit of Japanese Whaling fleet.
In late 2009, Prime Minister of Australia reiterated official opposition to Japan's whaling program and threatened to take legal action through international tribunals.
We, if we can not resolve this issue diplomatically, it will take international legal action. I'm serious about it, I would prefer to deal with it diplomatically, but if we can not get there, it is the alternative approach.
Australian PM Kevin Rudd, 2009
Opposition from environmental groups
The Japanese whaling fleet had several clashes with Anti-whaling protesters and activists from various groups, including the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society, which tries to follow, document and disrupt whaling fleet since the 2005-2006 season. 15th January 2008 two crew members traveling on the MV Steve Irwin boarded the whaling ship Yushin Maru 2, without permission and was subsequently detained aboard the ship a certain number of days. Japan claimed that the four crew members aboard a Japanese whaling vessel in Antarctic waters was wounded three March 2008, when anti-whaling group threw butyric acid on board.
Japan confirmed later threw the "Flash Bang" grenades into the Sea Shepherd ship MV Steve Irwin at their whaling ship Nisshin Maru. Japan also confirmed the firing a "warning shot" in the air. The captain of the Steve Irwin, Paul Watson, claimed having been hit in the chest by a bullet from a Japanese whaling ship crew member, and a piece of metal was found lodged in his bulletproof west he was wearing at the time. On 7 February 2009 MV Steve Irwin collided with the two Japanese vessels that it was trying to transfer a whale. Both sides claimed the other had been on sake.
In January 2010 it was revealed that the Japanese whaling fleet was chartering flights in Australian flights from Hobart and Albany to track the Sea Shepherd ship movements and provide information about their position on whaling fleet as the fleet could evade them. Flights were strongly criticized by Australian Greens explained that they would introduce a bill to try to ban activities related to whaling in Australia when the Senate resumes in early February. [Edit]
On 6 January 2010, the anti-whaling ship Ady Gil suffered serious damage to its bow after a collision with a Japanese whaling ship Shnan Maru No 2 and later sank in the Southern Ocean, despite attempts by the Sea Shepherd to save it. Video footage of the incident were taken by both a crew of Shonan Maru No 2 and Sea Shepherd members aboard Bob Barker and posted on YouTube.
International opposition
On March 6, 2008 members of the International Whaling Commission meeting in London to discuss reaching an agreement on whale conservation rules. Japanese whalers and anti-whaling activists encountered in the waters near Antarctica, 7 March 2008, with each side offering conflicting accounts of confrontation. IWC called on Sea Shepherd Conservation Society to refrain from dangerous actions and reiterated its condemnation of all acts which constitute a risk to human life and property in relation to the activities of vessels at sea.
On 8 March 2008, Solomon Islands' Prime Minister Derek Sikua said that Japan had offered to pay for country delegates to attend the March 6, 2008 IWC meeting in London. Hideki Moronuki, the whaling chief at Japan's Fisheries Agency, rejects the argument on to say: "There is no truth in it." He further stated that "Sikua may have confused the London meet with a seminar last week in Tokyo, where Japan invited delegates from 12 developing countries that recently joined or are considering joining the IWC. Japan sometimes contain small seminars on whaling and invites delegates from countries. I wonder if Mr Sikua mixed of such seminars and IWC meetings, "
Commercial viability
Because of its low self- food rate around 40%, Japan based storage to ensure a stable food supply. From 2009, including Japan, 1.2 million tons of fish and seafood stocks almost 5,000 tonnes of whale meat. Japan has begun to make whale meat in school lunches under a government initiative to reduce the quantity. However, there has been criticism of serving whale meat to schoolchildren because of allegations of toxic methylmercury levels. The World Wildlife Fund has also assessed that the Japanese government has had to invest $ 12,000,000 in 2008-09 Antarctic whale hunt alone just to go straight up and that grants totaling have amounted to approximately $ 150,000,000 since 1988.
Media Attention
Western media attention on Japan's whaling industry has increased.
Animal Planet's television series, "Whale Wars" puts a camera crew on board the Sea Shepherd Anti-whaling activist ship to document the annual interference with Japan's Antarctic whaling program. Japan has denounced the program as deceptive and supports eco-terrorists that increase ratings. In Animal Planet has also requests for films from the perspective of Japan's whaling fleet, but the requests were rejected.
The animated series "South Park "on Comedy Central recently lampooned both Japan's whaling tradition and the anti-whaling activists featured on" Whale Wars. "
A 2009 award winning documentary, "The Cove", focused solely on Japan's dolphin fish, mercury content in dolphin meat and whaling town of Taiji. The film also focuses on the difficulty of complying with Taiji fishermen at work due to obstruction from the local community, police and inaccessible places. Documentary was shown at 2009 Tokyo International Film Festival. Representatives from Taiji have denounced the film as factually incorrect and biased and threatened to sue the director.
See also
Whaling
History of whaling
Aboriginal whaling
Fishery
Dolphin hunting
The Convention of Kanagawa
International Whaling Commission
Nisshin Maru
Oriental Bluebird
References
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^ In the skin of whaling scien … About the Author
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